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What is the P/E ratio?

P/E is share price divided by earnings per share. It shows how much investors pay for each unit of current profit.

What is the P/B ratio?

P/B is market value divided by net assets. It compares stock price to the book value on the balance sheet.

What is ROE?

ROE is net profit divided by average shareholders' equity. It measures how efficiently a company uses shareholder capital.

What does market capitalization mean?

Market cap equals share price times total shares outstanding. It is a quick way to size a listed company.

What is inflation and why does it matter?

Inflation is a broad rise in prices over time. It erodes purchasing power and affects interest rates, valuation, and asset returns.

What is the difference between nominal and real returns?

Nominal return is your headline gain. Real return is nominal return minus inflation, which reflects true purchasing-power growth.

What is an index fund?

An index fund tracks a target index by holding a basket of securities. Its goal is to replicate index performance, not beat it.

What is the difference between ETF and mutual fund?

ETFs trade intraday like stocks, while mutual funds are usually priced once per day. They can track similar strategies with different trading mechanics.

What is expense ratio?

Expense ratio is the annual management and operating cost charged by a fund as a percentage of assets.

What is tracking error?

Tracking error measures how far a fund's returns deviate from its benchmark index over time.

What does diversification mean?

Diversification means spreading investments across assets, sectors, or regions so a single loss does not dominate your portfolio.

What is dollar-cost averaging?

Dollar-cost averaging means investing a fixed amount regularly. It reduces timing pressure and smooths entry cost across market swings.